The voyage that one makes to unravel the mysteries of cemetery monument icons and understanding the hidden meaning of epitaphs (short messages on cemetery tombstones) throughout this country has been neatly tucked away and seldom a topic of conversation around the dinner table. Understanding the historical, cultural anthropology, social and philosophical aspects of how we utilize cemetery monuments and understand epitaphs is very educational, cultural and reflects proud heritage in our very diverse American society. This paper will suggest reasons why we mark our graves and write messages on them. Many customs, religious symbols and cultural aspects will be presented to find the basic roots of how we lived and ultimately how we died in this phenomenon. According to Joseph Campbell, Mythologist, it is believed that the first burials implied a recognition by an agricultural people of the cycle of life: "[I]t is in the mother's body that grain is sown: the plowing of the earth is a begetting and the growth of the grain a birth…the idea of the earth as mother and of burial as a re-entry into the womb for rebirth appears to have recommended itself to at least some of the communities of mankind at an extremely early age…". [Campbell 1987, p. 66] This belief is supported by the continuous use of more detailed engravings, symbols and epitaphs on cemetery monuments and their evolutionary process.
Many people seem to overlook the meaning of the iconography and epitaphs from cemetery headstones. The goal of this paper is to develop a broader sense of understanding the iconography of cemetery monuments including the writings, symbols and messages on them. The engravings on headstones are often considered by most as simple artistic designs and/or creative writings. This is far from the truth. The researcher can obtain a wealth of information, both personal and historical data from the headstone itself. Interested researchers will slowly but surely learn more about the origin and purpose of cemetery monuments and epitaphs as they proceed in their quest to expand their knowledge into a “hidden culture”. Many personal, genealogical, religious and historic facts about the deceased can be revealed quite easily. There are many articles and publications on this topic that provide the researcher with the ability to understand more in depth the past life of a member of our society. Much can be understood and explained by what is written on or pictured on a slab of concrete or marble stone in a cemetery.
Cemetery tombstones often allow us, through knowledge of iconography and epitaphs, to glean some additional information about those buried in a particular cemetery and often a little more about their occupations, religious practices and perhaps what circumstances brought them to their death. When thinking of Egypt, instantly images of mummies, elaborate pyramid tombs and hieroglyphic paintings come to mind that provided those who read these inscriptions very descriptive details about the deceased. In Europe during the epidemics of the plague, the death's head and the dancing skeleton were common representations for life's brevity. It was not until the Victorian era that exceedingly elaborate commemoratives for the dead were used. Some engravings were self-explanatory but some were more cryptic such as the Christian cross. Unfortunately, some designs on gravestones cannot be interpreted so easily and if all symbols are taken for only one meaning, mistakes are often made. At times there are disagreements among the very best scholars. These symbols and epitaphs should be taken as “clues” in learning more about a deceased individual.
Have you ever wondered or noticed that most tombstones are laid out facing east and west? This is commonly found throughout the world. People were buried with their feet pointing toward the east and their heads towards the west indicating that they were ready to rise up and face the “new day” when “the trumpet shall sound and the dead shall be raised” or when Christ would appear and they would be reborn. Through this writing, it is hoped that a better understanding on this custom will be explained.
All in all, it is out of respect and remembrance that we should learn more about our dead. There is much to learn about heritage and customs of those that lived before us. Preservation of cemeteries is one part of our history that needs some serious attention and what can be learned from reading epitaphs and understanding symbolisms that were used on headstones is one small step towards this goal.
As beliefs and attitudes changed over time, so have the practices of remembering and burying our dead. Sir Walter Scott, a well-known scholar simply states the question like this: “Is death the last sleep? No! It is the last and final awakening.” In the earliest of man’s history of such in the United States, family burial grounds were the primary solution. Families buried their loved ones in areas set aside on their plantations and farms. Distance of plantations from towns necessitated alternative locations for cemeteries. As towns grew and churches were established, burials began to take place in churchyards. Churchyards were primarily located at or near the center of the city or town. [Peckenschneider) The earliest church graveyard in South Carolina is located in Charleston and dated in the first half of the 18th century. (McGahee and Edmonds, p.4). Churchyards became overcrowded, unhealthy places were bodies and tombstones were placed literally on top of one another. Social status depended on what section of ground you were buried. Favored sites were to the east, closest to the church. In these instances, the belief was that the dead would be assured the best view of the rising sun on the Christian believers, Judgment Day. The northern area of the churchyard was considered the “Devil’s domain” reserved for stillborns, bastards or strangers that died while passing through. Suicides were also buried in the north area but their corpse was not allowed to pass through the cemetery gates but were passed over the fence or wall of the churchyard. The south side was reserved for folks of lesser distinction. [Taylor, 2000] “Rapid urban growth and population mobility, booming business and commercial ventures, aggregations of surplus wealth, concentrations of educated and public-spirited people, revisions of religious doctrines, romantic affection of nature – all combined to create a context in which the rural cemetery was a logical alternative to the burial places of an earlier era.” [French 1975, p. 74] New burial places began to appear as well as new changes to epitaphs and tombstone styles. The natural landscape became part of the beauty of the cemetery. Nature being an important factor. Winding roads and hills only added to this beauty. Later, cemeteries were blocked and sectioned off. The access roads were squared off like typical city blocks. In the late 19th century, “Lawn” cemeteries came along where as a visitor walks across the green sod to access a grave. In the early 20th century, the “Memorial Park” became established most with embedded stones. Most of the Memorial parks forbid upright tombstones and require uniformed flat markers.
[Peckenschneider]
The earliest grave markers were stones and boulders. A heavy rock or rocks were placed on the grave so that those buried could not climb out on their graves. A need came about for those living to mark the graves of the deceased with a reminder about the person buried there. First markers of this sort were wooden or rough stone. Element exposure was detrimental to these types of markers. Early markers consisted of frightening motifs such as winged skull, skeletons and angels of death. The intent of these examples were to scare people into living a more righteous life. It was not until the late 1800’s that scenes of eternal rest and peace replaced the motifs depicting damnation. [Taylor, 2000]
War and disease brought about a different attitude concerning burials. The War Between the States alone took the lives of over 18,000 South Carolina service men and women. (McGahee and Edmonds, p.9). Due to the large numbers of victims, tombstones took on yet another look. An example of one disease victim can be found in the Sumter Cemetery in Sumter, South Carolina. A military man traveling on foot to a place unknown was ill with smallpox. He was taken to a "pest house" which was used by the county as a place to care for diseased folk and cared for by a person that had not died from the disease them self. He soon died and was buried in the community burying ground and placed a marker at his grave, bearing the word "Stranger". [Sumter Cemetery, 1976, p.8] Laurel wreaths, broken columns, broken swords and shields were introduced to many of their grave markers. In the early 20th century, the United Daughters of the Confederacy placed Confederate veteran graves with cast iron crosses of which a few can be seen today.
The U. S. Government provides headstones for unmarked graves of veterans. Though the regulations have pivoted over time, the goals has remained the same and that is to honor the deceased veteran who served his country. The emblems used on these headstones varies on what war he/she served. The choice of emblem was limited to the Latin Cross or the Star of David depending on the Christian or Jewish faith. Certain words or abbreviated words have been approved for the use on government provided headstones over a period of time such as “MIA” and “POW” being approved on December 12, 1988. The Sons of American Revolution (SAR) has instituted a program of marking graves of veterans of the Revolutionary War. Their marker is a modified Maltese Cross with center containing the figure of a Minuteman encircled by thirteen stars. [Frantz] It is unknown how many military and veteran burial places are in the United States due to numerous veterans’ plots in private or non-Federal public cemeteries. 70 percent of the markers provided by the US Government for marking new gravesites went to private or State cemeteries in 1991 and only 30 percent to national cemetery burials. [U.S. Department of the Interior]
Gravestones provide a window into a historical past. Often tombstones are the only existing material evidence for a decedent’s life. Anthropologist, James Deetz stated “there is no better place …to stand face to face with the past than in the old burying grounds…From the designs of these stones, and the way they vary in time and space, we may learn much.” [Meyer 1992, p. 171] There are still some examples of graveyards that seem to be untouched by the modern world, stuck in a time warp and shows no signs of modern influence. These rural cemeteries reflect many traditions of our ancestors brought with them to this country from their homelands. Choosing locations for which graveyards were designed such as hilltops, burial orientation, vegetation, decorations and among other things can provide us with information about the folks buried there. [Meyer 1992, p. 111]
South Carolina code of laws regarding flooding of cemeteries or burial grounds by power or water companies states that a proper public notice takes place prior to the creation of an artificial lake, pond or reservoir on a cemetery or burial ground. The names of those buried in the affected area shall be recorded. Relatives of all persons buried in this affected area shall be contacted and a statement of their wishes with respect to the deposition of remains of people buried in a given place shall be given. If no such statement is received, the company is at liberty to proceed with their plans. The company can decide if the bodies from a given burial place should be re-interred or remain where they are. An example of this is Lake Murray located in Irmo, SC. Many families received notification of the Lake Murray dam project and presented statements of their wishes for deceased relatives whose graves would be consumed by the waters of the impending lake as recorded in “Lake Murray Records”. Though some bodies were removed and re-interred in another locations, there were hundreds of graves left as they were and where they were. At times when the South Carolina Electric & Gas Company lower the waters of Lake Murray below the normal level, cemeteries can be seen and an opportunity is provided for viewing the tombstones of those buried there. Many of the epitaphs are still readable and headstones still standing that have provided much information for the enthusiastic researcher.
Though epitaphs, motifs, icons and customs have varied over time one purpose has remained consistent. That consistency is in regard to the respect given for the deceased. Whether they were stillborn, bastards, strangers, suicides, middle-class immigrants to this country or prestigious dignitaries, respect for their deaths, bodies and burials have been the intent of their families or those responsible to see the process through.
Our knowledge growth and understanding epitaph carvings and symbols used will continue to enlighten, encourage and mystify us as well as future generations.
Benjamin Franklin once said, “Show me your cemeteries and I will tell you what kind of people you have.” This quote applies to cemeteries all over the world. There is truly no comparing of cultures as they all are tied together in their views of respect for the dead. Some are more elaborate and dutiful than others. For example, deceased Muslims in the People’s Republic of Bangladash must be buried in their graves with their heads facing Mecca and those who see the funeral procession along the roadside never fail to stand up in expression of respect for the deceased. [Matsunami, 1998] As also seen here in America, this custom seems to have survived for a period of time but is less seen today. Those in Bangladash that practice the Buddhist religion, upon death, are to be cremated and their ashes scattered over a river or bury them in the ground.
In Argentina, after preparation for burial are made, the body is transported to the cemetery. Some cemeteries are restrictive in size of the tombstones. At Chakarita Cemetery, in the northwestern part of Buenos Aires, big mausoleum-style marble tombstones are erected for whole families. Older cemeteries usually have sections divided according to race, religion and nationality.
Along the eastern region of Ecuador, the tributaries of the Amazon River bury the head of a household in a hole in the person’s house. They place the body atop a stool inside the hole. Objects belonging to the deceased are placed inside the hole with the deceased and covered. The house is then abandoned so the spirit of the body can eternally live there. Their homes become their graves.
In the Roman world cemeteries were located outside the city walls. Pope Gregory I authorized burials to take place nearer to the churches as the souls of the dead may benefit from prayers of those worshipping in the churches as they passed the graves. [Houlbrooke, 1998]
Ancient Egypt brought forth the Sphinx, a mythological beast (shesep-ankth). The sphinx was a stone guardian with the body of a lion and the head of a man, symbolizing wisdom and mastery. In cases that the Sphinx can be found in a cemetery it is not believed by most scholars to indicate the deceased had a belief in the Egyptian afterlife or religion. Another Egyptian original symbol is the snake, which represents eternity. A hoped snake can also be found on graves and memorials of Revolutionary War soldiers here in America.
[Hacker, 2001]
Historians traveling throughout Zaire in 1884 noted that natives mark the final resting places of their friends by ornamenting graves with old cooking pots and more, all of which are made useless by penetrating them with holes. Since many of the early African graves were not marked with tombstones, placing personal articles of the deceased can be also be found in the early graveyards in the United States. In California, pipes driven into burial mounds which serve as speaking tubes that may allow communication with the deceased can be found showing us that burial customs were transported with people from country to country over time.
Interpreting Jewish tombstones needs to begin with knowledge as to whether the persons’ faith was Orthodox, Conservative or Reform. Equally important is the ability to read Hebrew and possibly Spanish, Portuguese, German and other Slavic languages. One of the oldest Jewish symbols is that of the menorah, a seven-branched candlestick, which may represent a pious woman while a bookcase, is symbolic of a learned and pious man. After the State of Israel placed the Star of David, known as the Mogen David, on their flag, this six-pointed star became the most popular and most recognizable Jewish symbol. [Hacker, 2001]
In Native American culture, burial customs varied widely. Variations were not only geographically but also due to different environments, social structure and spiritual beliefs. When social status is factored into the subject, burial rites were more elaborate. This is still the case today. The Plains Indians and other Indians of the Pacific Northwest buried their dead above ground using trees, scaffolds, canoes and boxes on stilts. All which decayed over time. Chambered mounds and crematory mounds were more permanent structures and served the Indians of the Mississippi River region. It was common among Indians of the Southeast and Southwest to use urn burials consisting of earthenware jars. Native Americans also adopted practices from the early European Americans that were brought about by religious proselytizing, intermarriages, edict and enforcement of regulations. [US Department)
Over time cemeteries have went through many phases. The 19th century cemetery in the United States has become a place to memorialize its buried dead. [Palkovich] The Victorian era (1832-1901) brought about unique children’s markers spotting the cemetery landscape. Most were three dimensional, sculptural depictions of children with domestic artifacts. They conveyed visual messages about the sanctity of childhood. [Meyer, 1992] “Their angel innocence shall remain unsullied by a breath from this sinful world”, wrote by Reverend John H. Morison in 1842. The most common Victorian children’s cemetery stone is one of a sleeping child. Victorian era views of death was less about the actual death of a person but that he/she might die without the benefit of mourning and unrecognized resulting in new symbolism. Reflecting the soul, one’s lifeworks, religion and the joy of salvation was the message depicted during this time. [Hacker, 2001]
Some 600 secret societies were established in the United States between 1800 and 1900. Individual benevolent society were innumerable many of which no longer exist. These may require much more work for the interested researcher. Some symbols were shared by some organizations such as the Masons and the Oddfellows. Among shared icons of the “eye”, “beehive”, “bible” and the “hourglass”. [Hacker, 2001] Some organizations are noted on tombstones using initials and can be found among local graveyards such as Elmwood Cemetery in Columbia, SC and Glenwood Cemetery in Thomaston, GA. A few of these organization initials that are found are “A.O.K.M.C.” that is the Ancient Order of Knights of Mystic Chain, the “F.O.E.” that is the Fraternal Order of Eagles and the “I. O. O. F” stands for the Independent Order of Oddfellows. Veteran related groups such as the “U.D.C.”, the United Daughters of the Confederacy and “V.F.W.”, the Veterans of Foreign Wars are frequently represented in cemeteries. Even some stones with organizational initials have survived desecration and destruction such being the Ku Klux Klan represented with the initials “K.K.K.” enclosed in a circle. [Hacker, 2001]
Knowledge or at least an understanding of Latin is a very helpful tool in understanding epitaphs and iconography. Common use of the term “In Memorium” is found which means “In Memory”. Many times the initials “R.I.P” can be found which most of us believe and understand simply to mean rest in peace. In Latin, it is seen as “Requiscit in Pace”. Latin phrases are often seen abbreviated, most being on Catholic stones in the 20th century. The Latin phrase “Hic lacet Sepultu…” translates to “Here lies buried…”. More complicated representations of this practice is “IC XC NIKA”. In Latin, “I” and “C” are the first and last letters of the Greek word Jesus; “X” and “C” are the first and last letter of the Greek word Xpictoc, “Christ” and Nika is the Greek word for “conqueror”. More commonly is “I.H.S.” or “I.H.C.” found. The “I” stands for Ihsus or Ihcuc, the name of Jesus in Greek with the S and C being variant forms in the Greek alphabet. When these are found on tombstones it stresses the identity of the individual with Jesus Christ. “I.H.S.” or “I.H.C.” are often confused with the Latin phrase, In hoc signo. On the eve of battle, Constantine, had a vision of a banner on which the phrase, “In hoc signo vinces” was written. Its meaning being “In this sign you will conquer”. Constantine won the battle and converted to Christianity therefore causes some confusion when viewed in a graveyard marker.
[Hacker, 2001]
The oldest and most universal of Christian symbols is the Cross. It has become the symbol of salvation, redemption and resurrection in Christianity. The Cross has marked centuries of Catholic graves. In Catholic symbolism, over 50 forms of the Cross have been used. The Cross did not become popular in America until after the War Between the States with the exception of a few early American tombstones. Some of the most common Crosses found are the Crucifix and the Latin Cross. The Crucifix is a realistic representation of Christ suffering on the Cross becoming most popular during the Middle Ages. Crosses in the United States that are lesser seen may be the Eastern Cross (Russian Cross), the St. Andrews Cross (Scottish Cross) and the Egyptian Cross (Tau Cross, Old Testament Cross or St. Anthony’s Cross). [Hacker, 2001]
From the leper colonies in the Holy Bible, to slavery in American history segregation has been evident. While the lepers were disease sufferers and slavery was based solely on race, these two groups were considered below society's values and standards. Therefore, the status placed on their lives while living was also placed on their lives in death. [Gazis-Sax] Slaves were primarily buried outside the family graveyards or in separate slave graveyards. Even today, some of the African American cemeteries in the Southeast still maintain African burial traditions. Many slaves brought to America from Africa were from the Bakongo culture. A culture that believed in one god and an afterlife in a world populated by spirits. The Bakongo culture believed that the spirit world was turned upside down and they were connected to it by water. Therefore, they decorated their graves with water bearing items such as shells, pitchers, jugs or vases, which would help the deceased through the watery world to the afterlife. They also adorned graves with items such as crockery, empty bottles, cooking pots and/or personal belongings of the deceased that he/she may need in the afterlife. Items were placed upside-down which symbolizes the inverted nature of the spirit world. Items were also broken to release its spirit and enable it to make the journey. [Gazis-Sax]
From our beginning, burial has been both feared and worshipped. Many practices, rituals and customs have been adhered to in comforting survivors of bereaved family members. Through placing of tombstones, monuments and epitaphs, we immortalize death. They let us know who is buried in a given gravesite or cemetery. We gain information about their lives and who they were in character and beliefs. In ancient times, it was believed that to speak a deceased persons’ name was everlasting which was the purpose of the tombs in Egypt. “A burial place is that persons final place and should be treated with the same respect we give the
living” says Steven Stymiest, South Carolina State Coordinator of Saving Graves organization.
Even today in the Southeast, very few cemeteries are multi-raced. Though leper and slavery issues are no longer factors, it appears that separation remains an issue in our society. Today, most black and white cemeteries are similar though many black cemeteries in rural areas of South Carolina continue to follow burial traditions with roots in Africa.
During the Middle Ages, the northern areas of churchyards which was the “Devil’s domain” was “exorcized” to make room for new burials that did not fall into the categories previously determined for those buried in the northern areas such as stillborns, bastards, suicides or strangers. [Taylor, 2000]
From the late 1800’s when tombstones and epitaphs began to take on a more peaceful look, society began its competition of who can get the grandest resting place. Excessive ornamentation have turned cemeteries into showplaces of the rich and prestigious. Gaudy artwork like furniture, life-size or larger statues dominate the landscape not to mention realistic representations of the dead. In Chicago’s Mount Carmel Cemetery, a marker portrays the entire Di Salvo family on a round dais that spins 360 degrees. [Taylor, 2000]
Reportedly when graveyards became full, people would dig up those long ago buried and burned any remains in order to provide a burial place for someone else. The mere thought of this was disrespectful and disgusted many people. This opinion led famous writer, William Shakespeare to write his own epitaph in hopes of avoiding the fate of many burial sites. His will was written on March 25, 1616 and he died on April 23, 1616 at the age of 52. His epitaph reads, “Good friends, for Jesus’ sake forbear, to dig the bones enclosed here! Blest be the man that spares these stones, and curst be he that moves my bones.”
In New Orleans, Louisiana most cemeteries consist of elevated vaults and tombs. Though expensive, this is decidedly so due to the topography of the city. Graves lower than the adjacent swamps fills speedily with water. The water is bailed out before it is fit to receive the coffin and during times of heavy rain, it is subject to complete inundation. One cemetery, The Great Bayou Cemetery, is completely inundated. Inhumation is impossible until the waters subside, the dead bodies accumulating all the while. Such cases are deplorable especially for family relatives and friends of the deceased. [Dowler 1850, p.6]. One can only imagine what family members feel knowing such disturbances have occurred. It is quite possible that cemeteries created in areas that were known to flood were necessary during the most extreme cases of epidemics such as the Yellow Fever in the early 1830’s. [Dowler, 1850]
For Navajo Indians, it was unfavorable for a Navajo to die inside a home that was considered unfortunate not only for the one who died there but also for those who remained. Navajo practice in such cases was to board up the windows and the doors and make a new opening in the north wall. In some cases, the dead were buried in the homes where they died and the structures were abandoned, torn down or less frequently, burned. Tradition tells us that not only were the homes abandoned or destroyed but also the entire settlement was often relocated. Most deaths that occurred outside of homes went through traditional burial ceremonies, which primarily took place in rock crevices or gullies and was covered by a high mound of earth. Rocks, branches or poles were included with the earthen ground. Valuables belonging to the deceased were placed with the body along with food and water being placed by the grave. It was common that a deceased persons’ saddle, which was slashed, to be placed on top or beside the burial ground. Broken dishes or a single pole marker was erected. No gravestones or memorial markers were typically present. [Meyer, 1992]
The Jewish holocaust was the systematic, bureaucratic, state sponsored persecution and murder of approximately six million Jews by the Nazi regime and their associates. [U. S. Holocaust] A word of Greek origin, “Holocaust” has the meaning "sacrifice by fire." Many memorials have been erected for the victims of the Jewish holocaust, many bearing the names of those that suffered at the hands of dictator, Adolf Hitler. These memorials are the places were relatives, friends or even curiosity seekers can reflect on the tremendous event
that was allowed to take place. A pictorial of Jewish Holocaust memorials can be found at the Florida Center for Instructional Technology website. These photos are an enormous contribution to remembrance of the victims but more so serve as a gift to those that survived. [Florida Center 1997-2002]. People cannot be untouched with heartfelt sympathy upon visiting one of these memorials. Grief is necessary for us to grow as a society. Lazarus Long reflects from the works of Robert Heinlein “A generation which ignores history
has no past and no future.” .
Today roadside markers are reminders to us how some people still view death. These reminders do not replace actual burials but some feel a need to place markers at the site of the actual death of a loved one. Untimely traffic fatalities are usually marked with crosses. These customs can clearly be linked back to Hispanic origins and other western European groups as well. Places of death in these cases are virtually turned into shrines and those compelled to repeat this custom, do a very good job of decorating and maintaining these shrines. Society repeats these customs with many famous people who have left legacies from various fields such as music, art, inventions, sports, entertainment, etc. Large museums house artifacts from the lives of famous individuals who have passed on by whatever means of death. This act captures the significance of the deceased life and death.
Americans are not only among the world’s firmest believers of an afterlife but we are the most optimistic of what the afterlife holds for us. A cemetery exists because every life is worth living and remembering always. As the well- known religious scholar “Buddha” states: “This existence of ours is transient as autumn clouds. To watch the birth and death of beings is like looking at the movements of a dance. A lifetime is a flash of lightning in the sky. Rushing by, like a torrent down a steep mountain.”
It is quite apparent that iconography and/or epitaphs that are placed on tombstones are reflections of the personalities and accomplishments of the deceased, marking their existence here on Earth. However, some do not reflect favorable remarks for some deceased persons but may capture the living character of the deceased with supreme accuracy.
The meanings of the carvings, icons and motifs used on early tombstones is not without strong disagreement among the best of professional scholars. There may be multiple meanings for any given item depicted thereon. Not all designs on gravestones can be interpreted in such a uncomplicated, exact way. Speculative interpretations for some of the most obvious designs are safe to be made. Those interested in symbolism of old gravestones should use an open mind and inquiring attitude combined with healthy skepticism. [McCallister] One of the less noticed icons seen on stones is the bee. Finding a bee carved into a stone in a cemetery may symbolize diligence and hard work, tireless activity of the deceased. In the 4th century, St. Ambrose compared the Church to a beehive and the Christian to the bee, working ardently and forever true to the hive. [Hacker, 2001]
The unmarked child grave or an unmarked infant grave is one of the most disturbing. The loss of a child surely devastates a family and any reason for such neglect in doing so this writer cannot comprehend. A mere name on a stone acknowledges to all readers visiting there, that this child was here and now is gone. The thought of a child alone, lost and with no family members is extremely unsettling to most and therefore, ignoring such graves is a way of not having to acknowledge this fact. Some images of deceased children include disembodied hands from heaven reaching down to pluck flowers from the earth or small lambs that are lost and alone. Cribs or small beds holding little sleeping children or empty beds symbolizes that the little ones are gone forever. Today, life-size carvings of children rest atop many graves. The stare of a lifeless life-size carvings can be most disconcerting. [Taylor, 2000]
In earlier times, burial grounds were thought to be responsible for spreading diseases and not usually located near living quarters. Long neglected or abandoned cemeteries are a social embarrassment to communities that have failed to care for them. [Sloan, 1991]. Many communities dismiss these reminders and they shutter at the thought of their own demise with the possibility of their own eternal resting places facing the same fate.
Cemetery tombstones often allow us through knowledge of iconography and epitaphs to glean some additional information about those buried in a particular cemetery and often a little more about their occupations, religious practices and perhaps what circumstances brought them to their deaths.
Denominations of different religions or religious beliefs can be ascertained by tombstone engravings. Early Christians had to devise carvings that disguised their true meanings. For example, in a Christian burial, an anchor is a disguised cross or in other settings may indicate that the departed soul was a sailor. [Hacker, 2001]
Some of our earliest American tombstones located in New England and from the 17th century were inherited from old European ones with skulls, crossbones and death’s heads decorating their surfaces. Gravestone artistry was not the primary occupation of our early engravers. Most often they were furniture makers or masons. During the 18th century, the peacock begins to be represented among tombstones carvings. In ancient legends, the flesh of the peacock does not decay, therefore it came to symbolize immortality. In particular, immortality through resurrection, since the body of Christ did not decay. By the19th century, stonecutters were a vital profession. And still some larger sculptures were imported from Italy.
[Hacker, 2001] Stone carvings began to represent the bereaved family. They began to make a statement about the life of the deceased person. The plainest of illustrations took on a new significance. Both death and life were symbolized, like angels, who were emissaries between this world and the next. Some instances showed angels in mourning while in other instances angels were presented as an offer of comfort for those left behind. [Taylor, 2000] Angels are very common; their meaning is “spirituality”. When two particular angels are found, one can immediately identify them to be Michael, the sword bearer and Gabriel, the horn blower. If
angels are not bearing these instruments, they are regarded as guardian angels. [Hacker, 2001]
Gravestone inscriptions and epitaphs yield fascinating information about the dead. There may well be a verse of a philosophical or moralistic nature but often humor and wit enliven the somber nature of the message though it may have been unintentional. [Wright, 1975]
Discarded clothing, opened books or forgotten tools symbolized that the dead had left behind the burdens of life.[Taylor, 2000] The color of purple (or violet) is used by Priests in instances of funerals, representing Christ’s passion, the crucifixion and the resurrection. The cross is used to show the deceased or their family’s belief in the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Practitioners of the Catholic faith believe the dove symbolizes the Holy Spirit while to those of the Jewish faith believes it to symbolize peace. [Hacker, 2001] Epitaphs often
contain scripture from the Holy Bible which are personal favorites of the deceased. Bereaved family members may also choose a scripture that captures or reflects a special meaning of the character of the deceased which shows their views of the decedents’ life.
By the 20th century, machinery created most of the details of headstones. Most designs were chosen from a catalog. Today, very few stones are created by stone carvers. Most are carved with machinery. Today’s technology is allowing the most delicate, intricate designs to be used on tombstones including photographed scenes. [Hacker, 2001]
Broken columns, inverted torches, spilled flowerpots and funeral urns were images chosen for lives that ended too soon. A hourglass with wings represented the passage of time. The intent of carvings and epitaphs of tombstones was to direct the mourning survivors to look toward Heaven and know that the worries of this world have passed. [Taylor, 2000]
The ability and enthusiasm to investigate what is beyond a slab of concrete or marble stone in a cemetery is quite interesting considering the journey you will take to enlighten yourself.
Though markers, epitaphs, cemetery layouts, decorations, and methods of burial have changed through time, questions continue to be generated. Why a particular epitaph was chosen, what do the symbols mean, what were the circumstances of the death or who is this person are just some of those possible questions that one may have. Reading, researching or simply having an interest in the topic of iconography and epitaphs on cemetery monuments can help reveal some of the answers.
Historical events have helped shape the cemeteries into those that exist today. Immigration and disease brought about a need for family and eventually town cemeteries which have grown into perpetual care, sculptured cemeteries. Wars brought about death and subsequent battle deaths helped establish the place on some of our most prominent National cemeteries. Availability of stone cutting material also impacted the course of iconography and epitaphs of cemetery tombstones from the long ago stonecutter to the modern mechanical methods.
Cultural rituals have been handed down and we have reminders of them from items belonging to the deceased being placed on their graves to roadside markers. The reason for some of the so called “standard” burial rituals that are currently in practice are not realized by most as coming from so far back in time. Many tombstones still make use of Latin or Greek terminology as well as many of the current carvings (icons). Though epitaph meanings may be less understood in today’s time, these meanings were well known in the early history of America.
Whether it was the lepers in biblical times to slavery in America, segregation has been a factor. Social regard towards burial has been divided. Some of the more negative social perspectives have disappeared such as grave placement in the cemetery itself. Though what one can afford generally is indicative of the actual funeral service, type of casket, plot and monument, it is not a common practice today to segregate due to social status.
Public disregard of vandalism has resulted in many neglected, abandoned or forgotten cemeteries.It is quite evident that philosophical perspectives have changed over time. Changes defined through the ages such as the Victorian era are reflectedon cemetery tombstone carvings, epitaphs and monuments. One can identify a Victorian era grave by knowledge and understanding. Spiritual guidance provided the majority of the earliest American epitaph inscriptions to loved ones of their deceased, which is still evident today. Religion practice or
religious belief is often the only contributing factor that would lead many to even visit a cemetery in the case of a family member’s death and ultimate cemetery burial.
Though methods of burials and marking of graves has changed over the years, something more important has changed as well…respect for our dead. Respect for their final resting places is of the utmost importance to our society. Our views and how we apply those views shape our minds morally. Our moral values are passed down from generation to generation. What we care about, we instill in our children, they will instill it in their children and so forth. The condition of our cemeteries today reflects the concept that these values have not been passed along to many through the years. The disrespect, disregard and destruction of many local cemeteries is evidence of the absence of moral values and moral respectfulness of those that commit such terrible atrocities. By showing the historical, cultural anthropology, social and philosophical aspects of the information that can be gained from epitaphs and icons found in cemeteries, the hope to re-establish those long forgotten values can be regained. How can we continue to ignore the disrespect that is being shown? A re-education of the public is necessary for any changes to take place. This issue did not come about over night and it will not be corrected over night but people need to understand that lack of action in caring for these forgotten cemeteries is our (society’s) loss.
Every life deserves the right to be marked and acknowledged, no matter of the amount of time they were here. Every life deserves to have a final resting place unmarred by vandals. Every life deserves the respect of others. It is our responsibility to care for those that have long ago passed away. It is our responsibility to provide a sacred environment to the deceased. It is our responsibility to prevent harm and desecration from happening. The old saying, “Out of sight, out of mind” can be applied here in describing the attitude of most when dealing with forgotten, neglected or vandalized cemetery and/or tombstones. Most people are unaffected by such issues unless it directly affects them but still in many cases, they appear unaffected by this subject. Providing a stone, replacement of broken stones, placing flowers, cleaning the cemetery or simple visitation are a few things that people can do to ensure that cemeteries are cared for.
It is hoped that this paper will provide information on the importance of cemetery iconography and epitaphs. Knowledge is power and knowledge is also respect.
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